"In the game of chess, a rook can move as many spaces as it can in one direction. Or, it can sit stone-still and guard the pieces around it, potentially holding its ground for an entire match — or thousands of years (whichever comes first)." Source: Live Science.
"John Oleson, an archaeologist at the University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada, believes he and his colleagues may have found one such rook that has been lying in the sand below an ancient trading post in Jordan since the seventh century. The stout sandstone figure, excavated from the ruins of an early Islamic settlement in 1991, has a rectangular body with two horn-like protrusions on top. While this may look far from the crenellated castle towers we call rooks today, it's spot-on for rooks in the earliest known chess sets, where those swift-moving pieces were shaped to evoke horse-drawn chariots. (The word 'rook' comes from 'rukh,' the Persian word for chariot.)"
Comment: I was kind of skeptical when I first saw the picture of this supposed rook, but it does look a lot like the 12th century rook in the Iranian chess set on display at the Met Museum.
"At first glance, Hnefatafl (prounounced 'nef-ah-tah-fel') might just look like a knock-off version of chess with Norse helms and impressive beards, but the game is at least 600 years older—already well-known by 400 A.D.—and is perhaps a lot more relevant to the conflicts of the 21st century." Source: Medium.com.
"Tafl games (also known as hnefatafl games) are a family of ancient Nordic and Celtic strategy board games played on a checkered or latticed gameboard with two armies of uneven numbers. Most probably they are based upon the Roman game Ludus latrunculorum [next video]. Names of different variants of Tafl include Hnefatafl, Tablut, Tawlbwrdd, Brandubh, Ard Rí, and Alea Evangelii. Games in the tafl family were played in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Britain, Ireland and Lapland. Tafl gaming was eventually supplanted by chess in the 12th Century, but the tafl variant of the Sami people, tablut, was in play until at least the 1700s." (Wikipedia)
"Senet is one of the oldest known board games. Fragmentary boards that could be senet have been found in First Dynasty burials in Egypt, c. 3100 BC. A hieroglyph resembling a senet board appears in the tomb of Merknera (3300-2700 BC). The first unequivocal painting of this ancient game is from the Third Dynasty tomb of Hesy (c. 2686–2613 BC). People are depicted playing senet in a painting in the tomb of Rashepes, as well as from other tombs of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (c. 2500 BC). The oldest intact senet boards date to the Middle Kingdom, but graffiti on Fifth and Sixth Dynasty monuments could date as early as the Old Kingdom." Source: Wikipedia.
"The Royal Game of Ur, also known as the Game of Twenty Squares or simply the Game of Ur, is a two-player strategy race board game that was first played in ancient Mesopotamia during the early third millennium BC. The game was popular across the Middle East among people of all social strata and boards for playing it have been found at locations as far away from Mesopotamia as Crete and Sri Lanka. At the height of its popularity, the game acquired spiritual significance, and events in the game were believed to reflect a player's future and convey messages from deities or other supernatural beings. The Game of Ur remained popular until late antiquity, when it stopped being played, possibly evolving into, or being displaced by, an early form of backgammon. It was eventually forgotten everywhere except among the Jewish population of the Indian city of Kochi, who continued playing a version of it until the 1950s when they began emigrating to Israel." Source: Wikipedia.
"The amphitheatre was built around 238 AD in Thysdrus, located in the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis ... It is one of the best preserved Roman stone ruins in the world, and is unique in Africa. As other amphitheatres in the Roman Empire, it was built for spectator events, and it is one of the biggest amphitheatres in the world. The estimated capacity is 35,000 [1], and the sizes of the big and the small axes are respectively 148 metres (486 ft) and 122 metres (400 ft). The amphitheatre is built of stone blocks, located on a flat ground, and is exceptionally well conserved." (Wikipedia)
"Rich, vibrant hues in a fresco recently uncovered at Pompeii illustrate the brutal finale of a violent battle between two gladiators." Source: Live Science
"The unknown artist was generous with the color red; the upright victor is bleeding from several gashes, and the losing fighter's body is striped with gore as bloody drops spray from multiple wounds on his arm and upper body.
"Officials with the Archaeological Park of Pompeii announced the find Oct. 11 on the park's website. The fresco was found on a wall in the ruins of an ancient tavern in Regio V, a zone in the northeastern part of Pompeii, park representatives reported. "
Note: The "Commodus" referred to in this short clip is the Roman emperor Commodus, son of the famous Marcus Aurelius. Their relationship was portrayed inaccurately (to say the least) in the overrated movie Gladiator which came out in 2000.
I'm not sure how accurate the information in this video is. According to the Oxford Classical Dictionary (OCD, 3rd ed. revised), there were only four types of gladiators: "the murmillo, with a fish for the crest on his helmet, and the Samnite, both heavily armed with oblong shield, visored helmet, and short sword; the retiarius, lightly clad, fighting with net and trident; and the Thracian with round shield and curved scimitar." I'm just guessing here, but it's possible that the OCD is referring to an earlier period in the development of the games.
The video probably exaggerates the bloodshed that took place during these staged fights:
"Prisoners of war and condemned criminals were compelled to fight as gladiators. Those who fought on a professional basis were either slaves, bought for the purpose, or free volunteers who for a fee bound themselves to their owner by an oath ... which permitted him to kill or maim them (in practice a gladiator was too valuable an investment to be wasted outside the games and the life of a defeated combatant was often spared by the audience's wishes)." (OCD)
Getting back to the movie Gladiator, its portrayal of the gladiatorial contests was mostly fiction. The emperor Commodus did fight as a gladiator at times, but his appearances were carefully staged to avoid injury. The idea that he would get involved in a fight to the death is ridiculous and pure Hollywood. He didn't kill his father, either, another blatant historical falsification.
Like gladiatorial contests, horse and chariot races were originally religious in nature. The chariot race apparently originated in ancient Greece. According to the Oxford Classical Dictionary (OCD, 3rd ed. revised), "in the funeral games for Patroclus [described by Homer] the chariot race is the premier event. The heroes drive two-horse chariots normally used in battle over an improvised cross-country course, round a distant mark and home again. Similar funeral games for other heroes are recorded, and heroes as well as gods were remembered at the Panhellenic festivals."
According to Wikipedia, "[t]he Romans probably borrowed chariot racing from the Etruscans as well as the racing tracks, who themselves borrowed it from the Greeks, but the Romans were also influenced directly by the Greeks." The races eventually developed into a fantastically popular sport and circuses -- chariot-racing arenas -- were built all across Italy and "in many parts of the empire," according to the OCD. "In the east, those of Antioch and Alexandria were famous, while Spain provides notable examples such as Merida (Emerita Augusta) and Urso, the latter famous for its racing stables."
The Circus Maximus was probably the most important arena of any kind in Rome, even after the construction of the Colosseum. Chariot racing was apparently even more popular than the gladiatorial shows and the races drew huge numbers of fanatical fans.
"The drivers were the sports superstars of their day," according to UNRV. "They could win greater name recognition across the Empire than even gladiators. One celebrity driver was known as Scorpus. He supposedly won over 2000 races before being killed in a collision ... at about 27 years old. Gaius Appuleius Diocles had perhaps the most recognition of all. He was a quadriga charioteer who drove in over 4200 races. His record included 1437 second place finishes and 1462 wins."
According to the University of Chicago, "[c]harioteers could win fabulous wealth, at least those who were freedmen, who always could threaten to drive for another faction. Prize money ranged from fifteen to thirty thousand sesterces to as much as sixty thousand for a single victory. Juvenal complains that a chariot driver could earn a hundred times the fee of a lawyer ... and Martial writes of Scorpus winning fifteen bags of gold in an hour. Diocles, a charioteer from Lusitania who competed during the reign of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, won prize money totaling 35,863,120 sesterces before retiring at age forty-two."
These popular spectacles featured a wide variety of hunts and animals, and the difference between "hunters" and "fighters of wild beasts" basically revolved around whether they were there to be punished or to entertain:
"Although bestiarii (beast fighters) and venatores (hunters) both fought wild animals, there are distinctions. The bestiarii often were wretched creatures, condemned criminals or prisoners of war, who had little chance against the animals they fought [according to Seneca, who regarded the games in general as 'pure butchery.']. With no real training and often no defense, they were thrown to the beasts as punishment and spectacle." Source: University of Chicago. Basically, the hunters were there to slaughter animals and in many cases the bestiarii were there to be slaughtered for the entertainment and edification of the Mob.
News report from 2015.
The hunts weren't just for entertainment, though; they also had a political purpose. According to the OCD, the venationes "displayed the ingenuity and generosity of the governing politician and the reach of Rome, and its power over nature, in procuring exotic species (lions, panthers, bears, bulls, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, elephants); they admitted a privileged city-audience to the glories of traditional aristocratic hunting. Along with gladiatorial fights, they were a principal reason for building amphitheaters."
Ambitious Roman politicians were expected to sponsor games to win support from the plebs, who were admitted free of charge. The more exotic and expensive the games, the better. The costs of putting on these spectacles, not to mention the expenses involved in electoral bribery and maintaining their lifestyles, frequently drove the nobility into massive debt which could only be paid off through war and corruption (the governorships of rich provinces were especially sought after for this reason).
The emperors, being emperors, put on the best shows. For example, "5,000 wild and 4,000 tame animals died in the inauguration of Titus' Collosseum in 80 [AD], and 11,000 at Trajan's Dacian Triumph," according to the OCD. Trajan was celebrating his victories in the Dacian Wars and his triumph is said to have lasted 123 days.
Supplying the beasts for these hunts was an expensive, difficult and dangerous business which led, among other things, to the development of a wild-animal trade and the stockpiling of exotic animals in various locations around the empire. Transporting them for long distances across sea and land, sometimes under harsh conditions, would have been particularly difficult.
"Available ancient textual and artistic data point to a number of groups who presumably captured these wild beasts during Roman times. Representations in mosaics show a mix of soldiers and what appear to be professional hunters undertaking these tasks. Soldiers were probably utilized; in fact, capturing wild beasts could be regarded as a military exercise of sorts. Exotic goods, including items such as ivory, spices, precious gems, and so forth, were often demanded from subject states of the Roman Empire, sometimes procured as tribute, and Roman soldiers stationed in these areas could help in the capture and transport of any requisitioned animals. No doubt some civilians and "native" peoples were also recruited (or coerced) to assist as required..." Source: "Supplying Exotic Animals For The Roman Ampitheatre Games," Michael MacKinnon (2006) (PDF), The Alexandria Archive Institute.
Note: There's at least one glaring error in this clip. Trajan didn't build the Colosseum. Construction was started by Vespasian and finished by his son Titus in 80 AD, eighteen years before Trajan became emperor.
Everyone's familiar with the stories (many fictional) about criminals and Christians being fed to the beasts in the Colosseum, but the story of the soldiers and professional hunters who actually had to collect these animals, keep them alive and ship them across the empire is much more obscure and interesting. The logistical problems they had to deal with must have been mind-boggling.
"In central and eastern Sweden from 550 to 793 CE, just before the Viking Age, members of the Vendel culture were known for their fondness for boat burials, their wars, and their deep abiding love of hnefatafl." Source: Hakai Magazine.
"Also known as Viking chess, hnefatafl is a board game in which a centrally located king is attacked from all sides. The game wasn’t exclusive to the Vendels—people across northern Europe faced off over the gridded board from at least 400 BCE until the 18th century. But during the Vendel period, love for the game was so great that some people literally took it to their graves."