Ancient World Review

Was The Viking Blood Eagle A Literary Invention?

The execution of Jarl Borg. Vikings Season 2, Episode 7

"The blood eagle is a ritualized method of execution, detailed in late skaldic poetry. According to the two instances mentioned in the Sagas, the victim (in both cases a member of a royal family) was placed prone, the ribs severed from the spine with a sharp tool and the lungs pulled through the opening to create a pair of 'wings'. There is a continuing debate about whether the ritual was a literary invention, a mistranslation of the original texts or an authentic historical practice." Source: Wikipedia.

The Blood Eagle was a particularly nasty form of sacrificial execution, but did the Vikings actually put people to death this way? As far as I can tell, the only primary documentary evidence for the practice comes from sources such as the Orkneyinga Saga, the Heimskringla, the Tale of Ragnar's Sons, and a handful of references in other texts.

Note: The Tale of Ragnar's Sons describes (among other things) the execution of King Aella of Northumbria, a scene also depicted in Vikings.

Jarl Borg (top video) in Vikings is an entirely fictional character, I believe. Aella, on the other hand, was apparently a real king, though the sources for his life are limited and very little is known about his reign. According to some accounts, he was executed by the Vikings after they invaded Northumbria following the king's execution of the legendary Ragnar Lodbrok, another figure who may or may not have actually existed. How Aella died is a matter of conjecture, though, because the sources contradict each other:

"While Norse sources claim that Ragnar's sons tortured Ælla to death with a blood eagle, Anglo-Saxon accounts maintain that he died in battle, at York, on 21 March 867." (Wikipedia)

"Well into the last century, most historians of the Vikings accepted that the blood eagle was deeply unpleasant but very real. According to the eminent medievalist J.M. Wallace-Hadrill, its possible victims were not only Ælla of Northumbria but also Halfdán, the son of Harald Finehair (or Fairhair), king of Norway, and the Irish King Maelgualai [Mael Gualae] of Munster; in some interpretations, it is supposed that even Edmund the Martyr may have suffered the same fate."

One possibility is that the Blood Eagle was a real execution method sensationalized by later writers. For instance, the Welsh scholar and translator, Gwyn Jones, argues in A History of the Vikings (1968) that this "inhuman rite" was "unhappily no fiction ... but owes its eminence in pseudo-lore almost entirely to fiction ..." (footnote pp 119-220, 1968 edition)

It's also possible that the Blood Eagle is entirely fictitious. This seems to be the current consensus, but there's a lot of disagreement. Revisionist historians have challenged the idea that the Vikings were just a mob of cruel barbarians wearing horned helmets, but their depictions of "cuddly" Vikings went too far in the other direction. One of the main problems with our picture of the Vikings is that much of what we know about them was written by their enemies.

If the Blood Eagle is a literary invention, there's a good chance that this grisly method of execution was dreamed up by Christian writers trying to demonize the pagan Vikings. According to Wikipedia, "[t]here is debate about whether the blood eagle was historically practiced, or whether it was a literary device invented by the authors who transcribed the sagas. No contemporary accounts of the ritual exist, and the scant references in the sagas are several hundred years after the Christianization of Scandinavia." Considering the Christians' history of inventing martyr stories set in the Roman Empire, I wouldn't be surprised if they concocted similar atrocity stories about the Vikings.

When I first started to research this subject, I assumed there was a high probability that the Blood Eagle was a real thing because the Vikings are thought to have conducted human sacrifices and the Blood Eagle is, in a way, just another form of ritual sacrifice. As it turns out, though, the question of whether the Vikings actually killed people for religious purposes isn't all that straightforward.

There is some archaeological evidence that the Vikings  may have sacrificed humans. For instance, "[a]t Trelleborg [Sweden] a sacrificial site was found from the time before the Viking fortress was erected in 980-81. In five c. 3 metre-deep wells human and animal skeletons were found, together with jewellery and tools. Of the total of five human sacrifices, four were young children aged between 4 and 7. " Source: National Museum of Denmark.

Blood sacrifice, including human sacrifice, was an intrinsic part of pagan religions. The historical sources for Viking human sacrifice are questionable, though, because they all seem to come, once again, from Christian accounts:

According to the National Museum of Denmark, "[t]here are several horrifying accounts of human sacrifices from the Viking period. The German bishop, Thietmar of Merseburg, describes how the Vikings met every nine years at Lejre on Zealand [Denmark] in January 'and offer to their gods 99 people and just as many horses, dogs and hens or hawks, for these should serve them in the kingdom of the dead and atone for their evil deeds.'"

A similar ritual (at a different location) is also depicted in Vikings.

"The German monk Adam of Bremen wrote a similar account in 1072 about the sacrificial tradition at [Gamla Uppsala] in Sweden, where the temple was devoted to Thor, Odin and Frey. Here the Vikings also met every 9 years to ensure the goodwill of the gods. 9 males of all kinds of living creatures were sacrificed in a holy grove nearby. According to Adam of Bremen dogs, horses and humans hung from the trees. The number 9 was apparently of magical significance to the Vikings and was involved in a number of rituals." (National Museum of Denmark)

"There has been extensive debate over whether these accounts were real or simply Christian propaganda."

I wouldn't be shocked to learn that the Vikings actually executed royal prisoners using the Blood Eagle. Even if the descriptions in the sagas were written for entertainment, they may have had some basis in fact. At this point, however, it looks like this particular form of execution was a literary invention derived from the skaldic poems and embellished by later Christian writers in yet another attempt to make the pagans look like cruel and bloodthirsty savages:

"One of the features of a skaldic poem is that it’s incredibly convoluted, like a cryptic crossword puzzle. If you have a reference to what appears to be the Blood Eagle in a skaldic verse, it’s quite likely this is a poetic conceit. Roberta Frank, at Yale, argues that the Blood Eagle is just the idea of a carrion bird scratching at the back of the dead. If you create lots of corpses, you are a very good warrior. That’s what is being referred to. But when later writers made prose stories around these skaldic verses, they seem to have interpreted it literally. So it’s quite likely that there was no such thing as this horrible form of torture, but it grew in the telling." Source: National Geographic (2017).

Related: The Vengeance of Ivarr the Boneless (Smithsonian, 2013)

Eight Historical Images Of Satan

Video from 2020.

"From a fallen angel to a bearded, red-hued man with horns (wearing his very own Nike Satan shoes, as reported in The Guardian) the Prince of Darkness' appearance has been reinvented many times. The satanic figure of today is the result of centuries of art, literature and theatre, all sculpting a personification of evil.

"To find out what the devil really looks like, All About History magazine spoke with Marina Montesano, professor of Medieval History at the University of Messina in Italy, and Jan Machielsen, senior lecturer in Early Modern History at Cardiff University in the UK. Both of these scholars are experts in the history of Satan and the occult.

"Here are eight ways that people have pictured Satan through history."

The Malleus Maleficarum

"The Malleus Maleficarum (Latin for 'The Hammer of Witches', or 'Hexenhammer' in German) is one of the most famous medieval treatises on witches. It was written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, and was first published in Germany in 1487. Its main purpose was to challenge all arguments against the existence of witchcraft and to instruct magistrates on how to identify, interrogate and convict witches." Source: The Malleus Maleficarum.

"Some modern scholars believe that Jacob Sprenger contributed little if anything to the work besides his name, but the evidence to support this is weak. Both men were members of the Dominican Order and Inquisitors for the Catholic Church. They submitted the Malleus Maleficarum to the University of Cologne’s Faculty of Theology on May 9, 1487, seeking its endorsement."

According to some sources I've seen, the Malleus Maleficarum was banned by the church, but apparently this wasn't the case:

"While general consensus is that The Catholic Church banned the book in 1490 by placing it on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ('List of Prohibited Books'), the first Index was, in fact, produced in 1559 under the direction of Pope Paul IV. Therefore such claims are dubious, at best." (Ibid)

According to Wikipedia, "The Malleus recommended not only torture but also deception in order to obtain confessions: 'And when the implements of torture have been prepared, the judge, both in person and through other good men zealous in the faith, tries to persuade the prisoner to confess the truth freely; but, if he will not confess, he bid attendants make the prisoner fast to the strappado [see note below] or some other implement of torture. The attendants obey forthwith, yet with feigned agitation. Then, at the prayer of some of those present, the prisoner is loosed again and is taken aside and once more persuaded to confess, being led to believe that he will in that case not be put to death."

Note: Weirdly enough, the strappado (modified to prevent dislocations) has become a popular form of sexual bondage. There are lots of videos of the practice out there in case you're interested.

Comment: The Malleus Maleficarum has been called one of the most evil books of all time, but I'd love to have a copy of one of the early editions. These old books are beautiful and they're worth a fair amount of money.

Video from Jan. 2020.

The Malleus Maleficarum is obsolete, of course. These days we don't need a manual on how to identify witches, force them to confess and then execute them because modern witches freely confess their blasphemies on the internet and most of them aren't worth hanging. Not for witchcraft, anyway. I can think of other reasons to string them up, however.

The Timbuktu Manuscripts

Video from 2014.

"Timbuktu Manuscripts ... is a blanket term for the large number of historically important manuscripts that have been preserved for centuries in private households in Timbuktu, Mali [see note below]. The collections include manuscripts about art, medicine, philosophy, and science, as well as copies of the Quran. The number of manuscripts in the collections has been estimated as high as 700,000." (Wikipedia)

^"The manuscripts are written in Arabic and local languages like Songhay and Tamasheq.The dates of the manuscripts range between the late 13th and the early 20th centuries (i.e., from the Islamisation of the Mali Empire until the decline of traditional education in French Sudan). Their subject matter ranges from scholarly works to short letters."

Video from 2018.

Note: Mali is located in northwestern Africa. "Rock paintings and carvings indicate that northern Mali has been inhabited since prehistoric times when the Sahara was fertile grassland. Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used around 500 BC. Large settlements began to develop in 300 A.D., including Djenne." (Wikipedia)

Timbuktu, perhaps Mali's most famous ancient city, "started out as a seasonal settlement and became a permanent settlement early in the 12th century. After a shift in trading routes, particularly after the visit by Mansa Musa around 1325, Timbuktu flourished from the trade in salt, gold, ivory, and slaves. It became part of the Mali Empire early in the 14th century. In the first half of the 15th century, the Tuareg tribes took control of the city for a short period until the expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the city in 1468." (Wikipedia)

"In its Golden Age, the town's numerous Islamic scholars and extensive trading network made possible an important book trade: together with the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah, an Islamic university, this established Timbuktu as a scholarly centre in Africa. Several notable historic writers, such as Shabeni and Leo Africanus, wrote about the city. These stories fueled speculation in Europe, where the city's reputation shifted from being extremely rich to being mysterious."

The subsequent history of Timbuktu is too complex and chaotic to describe here, but the basic story is easy enough to understand. The town reached its zenith under the Muslims during the 14th and 15th centuries and then entered a long period of decline. All that remains of its golden age are a complex of ancient buildings and mosques made of earth, fiber, straw and wood -- well preserved by the climate -- and this huge collection of manuscripts.

Its typical that the Jihadi scumbags would want to destroy these ancient manuscripts.

The Library of Congress maintains a digital exhibition called the Ancient Manuscripts of the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu.

Under Threat: The Ancient City Of Timbuktu & The Djinguereber Mud Mosque

"An intellectual and spiritual capital in the 15th-16th centuries, as well as the heart of Islamic growth throughout Africa, the city of Timbuktu is situated at the gateway to the Sahara desert. It was also an economic hub, and it’s marketplace saw the trading of manuscripts, gold, cattle, grain and salt. Timbuktu has three great mosques, including Djingareyber." Source: The Zamani Project (lots of high quality photos and videos can be found here).

"Desertification is a threat in Mali, and although these structures are restored regularly, they remain vulnerable. The Djingareyber Mosque was one of several madrasas (Arabic educational institution) that made up the University of Timbuktu, and its central minaret is a visible landmark in the urban landscape of the ancient Malian city. Parts of Timbuktu’s historic centre, including the Djingareyber Mosque, are a UNESCO World Heritage Site."

Viking Advice To Today's Young Men

Novelist Bjorn Andreas Bull-Hansen runs a YouTube channel and website devoted to Viking life, bushcraft, hiking, camping, the Norwegian wilderness and related topics.

Vikings Live: A Tour From The British Museum

"First broadcast in cinemas, Vikings Live explores the world of these warriors, seafarers and conquerors.

"...With demonstrations, stunning close-up photography of the Viking objects in the [2014 exhibition Vikings: life and legend] and a torch-lit burial in the grounds of the Museum, the broadcast of Vikings Live is a reminder of how the Vikings have shaped our modern lives.

"Presenters Michael Wood and Bettany Hughes are joined by guests including exhibition curator Gareth Williams, Neil MacGregor and experts on Viking ships and swords, burial and beliefs, as well as their language and legacy."

The Ancient City Of Sigiriya In Sri Lanka

"Once a famous royal palace, Sigiriya is a popular tourist destination, known for its ancient frescoes, which are similar to those found in the Indian Ajanta caves. It is one of the seventh sites in Sri Lanka that were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. It is considered one of the best examples of town-planning that date back from ancient times." Source: Unusual Places.

"During the Middle Ages, Sigiriya was for a short time the capital of the island. It was under the reign of Dhatusena Dynasty. Originally used in the third century BC by Buddhist monks as a place of retreat and meditation, the site served later as a residence and fortress to King Kassapa I (477 – 495 AD). When Kassapa was defeated by Mogallana and lost his throne, the site was given to the Buddhist monks. In the fifth century, the Buddhist cult Sangha opened here a church."

Note: "The environment around the Sigiriya [rock] may have been inhabited since prehistoric times. There is clear evidence that the many rock shelters and caves in the vicinity were occupied by Buddhist monks and ascetics from as early as the 3rd century BC. The earliest evidence of human habitation at Sigiriya is the Aligala rock shelter to the east of Sigiriya rock, indicating that the area was occupied nearly five thousand years ago during the Mesolithic Period." (Wikipedia)

The city and citadel at Sigiriya were built by King Kassapa I during the conflict following his usurpation of the throne previously held by his father, Dhatusena. The story is all too familiar. Kassapa wasn't in line to become king even though he was Dhatusena's eldest son -- the rightful heir was his brother, Moggalana -- so Kassapa staged a coup and threw his father into prison and his brother fled to India. 

The mirror wall at Sigiriya and views from the rock.

Kassapa thought Dhatusena had a large treasure stashed away somewhere, demanded its return and ended up murdering his own father because he thought the former king was holding out on him. Widely condemned for this and worried that his brother was going to attack him, Kassapa moved to Sigiriya where he built an elaborate defensive position:

"Sigiriya was a large rock rising above the surrounding plain, offering an unhindered view in all directions. It was chosen as the capital because of the strategic advantage this would give the defenders during an attack. Large ramparts and moats were built around the city. An elaborate and large garden was built around the rock. These gardens consisted a number of pools, fountains and other structures. A complex underground irrigation system supplied water to these pools and fountains, and the fountains are functional to this day." (Wikipedia)

"The constructions on top of the Sigiriya rock include the king’s palace among several other buildings and pools. The Sigiriya frescoes [next video], which depict maidens carrying flowers, were also created during Kashyapa’s reign at Sigiriya.The Mirror Wall which is also known as the Ketapath Pawura is another important creation."

Kassapa's defenses didn't do him any good, however. His brother returned and defeated his army, and he ended up killing himself with his own sword.

The Witch Marks Of Creswell Crags

Video from 2020.

"Mysterious 'witch marks' that were carved into a cavern's walls centuries ago [16th - 19th centuries] to ward off evil are getting a public viewing, thanks to 3D modeling and animation." Source: Live Science (2020).

"The marks were discovered earlier this year [2020] in Creswell Crags, an enclosed limestone gorge in the United Kingdom that houses a cave used by humans during the Ice Age, Creswell Crags Museum & Heritage Centre representatives said in a statement. But humans were also using the cave during the medieval period, covering its walls and ceilings with so-called witch marks as a form of protection against evil spirits and witches."

"The number and variety of witch mark designs is unprecedented. Among the most common found are the double VV engravings which are believed to make reference to Mary, Virgin of Virgins and similarly PM is Pace Maria. Others are believed to be devices for capturing or trapping ‘evil’ and these include diagonal lines, boxes and mazes. The marks appear to have been added to over time and may indicate a need to strengthen the protection in response to a period of unexpected sickness, death or poor crops." Source: Creswell Crags.

How The Catholic Church Dabbled In Medieval Curses

"Norwich Cathedral is an English cathedral located in Norwich [UK], dedicated to the Holy and Undivided Trinity. It is the cathedral church for the Church of England Diocese of Norwich and is one of the Norwich 12 heritage sites." (Wikipedia) Construction of the cathedral began in 1096 and was completed somewhere between 1121 and 1145 AD.

The Norfolk Medieval Graffiti Survey has been studying the walls of Norwich Cathedral, which are apparently covered with graffiti including prayers, carvings made by soldiers during the English Civil War and hundreds of "secretive inscriptions:"

"Amongst the most intriguing discoveries made so far are a number of late medieval text inscriptions, apparently names of individuals, that appear to be upside-down. Initial suggestions that they had been carved into the stones before the stones were put in place have now been discarded. It appears more likely that these particular inscriptions were deliberately created in this way. Although their exact meaning is still a mystery it has now been suggested that these inscriptions were intended to act as curses." Source: Medievalists.net.

Video from 2013.